Radiologic Classification of Hippocampal Sclerosis in Epilepsy.

Temporal lobe epilepsy is a common form of epilepsy that is often associated with hippocampal sclerosis (HS). Although HS is commonly considered a binary assessment in radiological evaluation, it is known that histopathological changes occur in distinct clusters. Some subtypes of HS only affect certain subfields, resulting in minimal changes to the overall volume of the hippocampus. This is likely a major reason why whole hippocampal volumetrics have underperformed versus expert readers. With recent advancements in MRI technology, it is now possible to characterize the substructure of the hippocampus more accurately. However, this is not consistently addressed in radiographic evaluations. The histological subtype of HS is critical for prognosis and treatment decision making, necessitating improved radiological classification of HS. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) has issued a consensus classification scheme for subtyping HS histopathological changes. This review aims to explore how the ILAE subtypes of HS correlate with radiographic findings, introduce a grading system that integrates radiological and pathological reporting in HS, and outline an approach to detecting HS subtypes using MRI. This framework will not only benefit current clinical evaluations, but also enhance future studies involving high-resolution MRI in temporal lobe epilepsy.ABBREVIATIONS: CA = cornu ammonis; DG = dentate gyrus; HS = hippocampal sclerosis; ILAE = International League Against Epilepsy; SRLM = strata radiatum, lacunosum, and moleculare layers; TLE = temporal lobe epilepsy.

When in doubt, return to fundamentals (seizure semiology).

This case of drug resistant focal epilepsy highlights several invaluable teaching points. Hypotheses grounded in seizure semiology provide the best framework to ensure accurate interpretation of diagnostic testing. Without a hypothesis, information gathered from tests can be difficult to linearly piece together and can lead to poor patient outcomes. The case also provides a real-world conundrum of discordant test results that were ultimately rectified by re-visiting the initial hypothesis and cross-testing. Perinatal stroke continues to be a common etiology of drug resistant epilepsy. Patients can achieve seizure freedom and good quality of life with appropriate workup and in appropriate cases, surgery.

Core Features Differentiate Dravet Syndrome from Febrile Seizures.

An 11-month-old girl with febrile seizures and first unprovoked seizures was evaluated in the hospital. Relevant history included developmental delay and strong family history of febrile seizures and migraines. A routine electroencephalogram was performed and was abnormal due to the presence of a slowed posterior dominant rhythm, generalized spike-wave discharges, and multifocal sharp waves. The findings were concerning for a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. Given the concern for a developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, a next generation sequence epilepsy gene panel was ordered which identified a pathogenic variant in SCN1A. The clinical history, electroencephalogram, and pathogenic variant were compatible with a diagnosis of Dravet syndrome. This Grand Rounds manuscript highlights the thought process, evaluation, differential diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis in Dravet syndrome.

Super-refractory status epilepticus during blinatumomab initiation for B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Seizures have been reported as an adverse effect of blinatumomab, a bispecific T-cell engager monoclonal antibody, which is mainly used for the treatment of pediatric relapsed/refractory leukemia. Here, we present the first reported case of super-refractory status epilepticus in an 11-year-old boy with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) while receiving blinatumomab. Our patient had a complete return to baseline despite enduring encephalopathy, refractory subclinical seizures requiring prolonged therapeutic burst suppression and MRI signal changes. This case demonstrates that super-refractory status epilepticus is a possible neurotoxic adverse effect of blinatumomab treatment, which responds well to conventional protocols for acute refractory seizures.

Seizures are a known side effect of blinatumomab, a relatively new immunotherapy drug, which is mainly used for the treatment of relapsed leukemia in children. Here, we present the first reported case of seizure continuing for more than 24 h despite appropriate antiseizure treatment while also receiving blinatumomab. Despite an extended period of altered mental status, new abnormalities on imaging of the brain and a medication-induced coma to treat unrelenting seizures, our patient returned completely to his healthy brain function. This case demonstrates that seizures, which are especially difficult to treat, can be associated with blinatumomab immunotherapy for pediatric refractory B-ALL; however, standard-tiered seizure treatments can be effective.

Advances in Epilepsy Surgery.

BACKGROUND: A large number of patients have epilepsy that is intractable and adversely affects a child's lifelong experience with addition societal burden that is disabling and expensive. The last two decades have seen a major explosion of new antiseizure medication options. Despite these advances, children with epilepsy continue to have intractable seizures. An option that has been long available but little used is epilepsy surgery to control intractable epilepsy. METHODS: This article is a review of the literature as well as published opinions. RESULTS: Epilepsy surgery in pediatrics is an underused modality to effectively treat children with epilepsy. Adverse effects of medication should be weighed against risks of surgery as well as risks of nonefficacy. CONCLUSIONS: We discuss an approach to selecting the appropriate pediatric patient for consideration, a detailed evaluation including necessary evaluation, and the creation of an algorithm to approach patients with both generalized and focal epilepsy. We then discuss surgical options available including outcome data. New modalities are also addressed including high-frequency ultrasound and co-registration techniques including magnetic resonance imaging-guided laser therapy.

Post-COVID-19 Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis in a 17-Month-Old.

Neurologic manifestations of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in pediatric patients have been reported in the acute and postinfectious stages of coronavirus disease 2019. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) typically presents in children after a viral illness at a mean age of 3 to 7 years. A total of 60% to 90% of literature-reported pediatric patients with ADEM have minimal to no neurologic deficits at long-term follow-up. We present a 17-month-old developmentally typical girl with parental complaints of irritability, upper extremity weakness, and gait disturbance. She presented to the hospital afebrile and irritable with right-sided nasolabial fold flattening, neck stiffness, left upper extremity rigidity, right upper extremity paresis, bilateral lower extremity hyperreflexia, and truncal ataxia. During her hospital course, she became somnolent with autonomic instability and was transferred to intensive care. Contrasted brain MRI revealed diffuse patchy T2 hyperintensities without contrast enhancement. Nasopharyngeal SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain reaction and serum antibody testing results were positive. Cerebral spinal fluid analysis was unremarkable. Respiratory viral panel and autoimmune encephalitis and demyelinating disorders panel results were negative. She was started on high-dose methylprednisolone and intravenous immunoglobulin, with improvement in mental status, focal deficits, and ambulation. After hospital discharge, she received inpatient rehabilitation for 2 weeks and at 2 month follow-up had a full neurologic recovery. We report the youngest case of postinfectious ADEM due to SARS-CoV-2 in a toddler. Early recognition of autoimmune and inflammatory complications of SARS-CoV-2 is vital for early aggressive immunomodulatory treatment and, consequently, improved morbidity in these patients.